FLOUR
The quality of the flour is important when making bread. 'Strong' wheat flours have a high protein content that, when mixed with water, forms gluten. It is this strong, continuous web of elastic gluten which holds the aerating gases as bubbles in the dough. Flours made from other grains and seeds may be used in bread and will give an interesting variety to your baking. However, rye, barley, oats, maize and buckwheat, for instance, have less gluten than wheat so slight modifications to your recipes and techniques may be necessary.

Substitute 2oz (50gm) of these unusual flours in every 1lb (500gm) of wheat flour to start with and go on from there. You will give the dough a good start in cold weather if you warm the mixing bowl and flour first. Rest the bowl of flour over a pan of hot water for 10 minutes or warm on medium power in a microwave oven for half a minute. Store all flours in a cool, dry place away from strong smelling foods.

YEAST
In the past the only type of yeast available was a liquid 'barm', a by-product of the brewing undertaken at home. It was kept by the housewife as a live culture, cherished with a warm environment and fed at regular intervals with fresh flour, warm water and a pinch of sugar. Part of this culture was used to make a fresh batch of bread and a piece of the resulting dough stirred back into the stock culture, always hoping to keep the yeast strong and robust from the wild yeast spores on the fresh flour. Good 'barm' might be traded with a neighbour and the resulting hybrid could be better than either parent. However, these wild yeasts were inconvenient and could be unreliable and temperamental, sometimes producing heavy and unpalatable bread. Perhaps this is why baking with yeast acquired the reputation of being difficult and surrounded by mystique.

Today we have the benefit of several different kinds of modern yeast. In choosing the one most convenient for you, following these tips will help you to be successful.

INGREDIENTS

Fresh yeast looks rather like putty and is sold by many supermarkets and wholefood shops. It needs to be started into growth with a little of the warm water in the recipe and just a pinch of sugar (before you mix in the flour and the salt). Leave in a warm place for about 15 minutes for it to become frothy before mixing the yeast into dough with the rest of the liquid.

Dried yeast is available in several different kinds, most of which are sold vacuum packed in sachets so that they have a long shelf life. They are very convenient to keep in stock, ready to use at short notice. The technique for using dried yeast depends upon which type you have: be careful to read the instructions. Granular dried yeast is used like fresh yeast, being activated with some of the warm liquid and a pinch of sugar and set to froth before being added to the rest of the ingredients.

'Easy-blend' yeast saves a good deal of time as you don't have to start it into growth. It is mixed with the dry flour before adding any liquid at all. In fact it will fail miserably if you set it to work first with water. The handling of the dough, kneading, rising and proving all proceed as if you were using fresh yeast. At least one brand of Easy-blend yeast contains a little vitamin C that speeds up the growth of the yeast. With this type of 'Fast Action' Easy-blend yeast the dough requires only one rising, in the tins, so you can be baking your bread within an hour!

With practice you will be able to use almost double the weight of flour yet still using only a half to one ounce (15-30gm) of fresh yeast: the less yeast used, the better the bread! It is by no means an exact science and the fact that twice as much flour is used does not mean that double the yeast is required; just as long as you are willing to allow the dough a little more time to rise. Commercial processes for bulk bread making may use as much as twenty times more yeast than you would use at home, a third more water plus the mis-named 'improvers'. This may partly explain the difference between bakers' and home-made bread.

Salt is an important ingredient, not only for its flavour but for its action as a regulator of the growth of the yeast. In slow rising dough it prevents the fermentation becoming sour, a cause of loaves with poor volume and shape. Salt retards the action of the yeast and indeed will kill it if sprinkled directly onto the fresh yeast, so blend the salt thoroughly into the dry flour before starting to make the dough, regardless of whether you are using fresh or dried yeast. If you like to use crystal salt it is best to dissolve it first in a little of the warm water used in the recipe as the coarse particles may not fully break down during kneading. A good rule of thumb is to use a level teaspoon of salt per 1lb (500gm) of flour.

Liquid, usually water, for mixing the dough should be comfortably warm. Mixing two measures of cold water with one of boiling water will give the correct temperature. If the liquid is cooler the dough will still rise but will take longer. If the water is too hot you risk killing the yeast and the dough will not rise. You will need half a pint (300ml) of liquid to every 1lb (500gm) of flour. Adding a little milk or plain yoghurt as part of the liquid enriches the bread and makes a softer crust. A teaspoon of plain malt extract or honey stirred into the liquid helps the yeast to become active quickly.

METHOD
You will find it best to add nearly all the liquid at once when you start to mix the dough. If it is slightly sticky when you begin to knead it is easier to add a little flour, rather than try to moisten a large lump of stiff, dryish dough

. Kneading: This is the process of mixing the dough into a smooth consistent mass with no streaks of dry flour or surplus liquid. As the gluten forms during the kneading the feel of the dough will change, becoming pliable and rubbery. Pull and stretch the dough, working on a flat surface so that you can turn and push strongly. You will develop a rhythm that is comfortable and which can be quite therapeutic! Test the dough by pressing in a finger to make a dent: if the mark comes out quickly it is kneaded sufficiently. Some experts suggest that if you knead longer than is necessary the sharp bran particles in wholemeal flour tear the gluten as it forms, reducing its strength and raising power and causing the bread to be heavy.

Rising: This is the first part of the yeast's growth through the doughy mass. The fermentation produces carbon dioxide that aerates the dough and it should double in size. Prevent a dry skin forming on the dough by rolling it round in a lightly oiled bowl, cover with polythene and a clean tea towel and put in a warm place to rise. Do not be tempted to hurry this part of the process by putting it too near a heat source; uneven or 'one-sided' heat will cause dry, hard patches in the developing dough and the bread will stale quickly. A warm airing cupboard, living room temperature or a sunny window sill will be fine. If it suits your timetable better, leave it overnight in a cool place such as the pantry or even in the garage! If you rise it in a cool place it will need bringing to room temperature before you can shape it. It is ready to shape into loaves when a finger dent won't recover quickly.

Knocking back: This is simply a matter of smacking the risen dough down with the back of your hand. The rise will collapse, flattening the large spaces previously filled with the aerating gases that will escape. If you wish at this stage you can lightly mould the dough into a ball and let it rise again. This second rising will be quicker than the first and will produce a well-ripened dough, resulting in loaves of even texture and a sweet mature flavour.

Shaping: Cut the risen dough into pieces of a size to two-thirds fill your chosen baking tins, which should be lightly greased and warm. Using the least flour necessary on your working surface flatten the portion into an oblong as long as the tin and three times as wide. Roll up Swiss roll fashion or fold 'sides to middle' and place the dough, join downwards, in the tin. Tuck in the ends and press out to fill the corners well. For baps and rolls shape the dough into smooth balls and place them, not quite touching, on warm, greased baking sheets. Decorative shapes are easily achieved such as knots, twists, clover leaves, plaits and small cottage loaves.

Proving: This is the last part of the preparation before you bake the dough. During this time the dough will recover and grow again, 'proving' that the yeast is still alive and active. Cover the tins with polythene and set in a warm place to allow the dough to rise again and fill the tin. Protect it from draughts as this is the only time that the dough is fragile and susceptible to shock. The pieces should once more rise to about double in size. If the worst happens and the dough rises too much and sags in the tins, tip the pieces out, gently reshape them, replace in the tins and allow them to prove again.

Finishes: You may add a finish after shaping the dough or during the proof. Brush the shapes with milk, egg wash, salted water or light syrup for sweet breads. Poppy, sesame or cumin seeds or kibbled wheat give a crunchy bite. If you decorate the tops of the loaves with cuts or slashes the cuts will open out, giving an extra area of crust. Use a really sharp knife or you will flatten the proof; a 'Stanley' or other craft knife, kept specially for kitchen use, is ideal.

Baking: When you can see that the dough is rising well during the proof and developing a nicely domed top, put the oven on to pre-heat. Yeast dough requires a really 'bold' start to kill the yeast as quickly as possible. This prevents large holes forming in the crumb or 'flying crust' where the top crust lifts off. Bake at 220°C (450°F, Reg 7-8) for the first 10-15 minutes for loaves and then reduce to 200°C (400°F, Reg 6-7) for the rest of the baking time. Rolls take only 15-20 minutes total cooking time, loaves 30-50 minutes depending on size. If you are using a fan assisted oven reduce these temperatures by 10-20°C. The loaves will have shrunk slightly from the tins when they are cooked, with the crust well-formed and brown. When removed from the tins and tapped underneath the loaves will give a hollow ring, rather than a thud! For a crisper crust put them back onto the oven shelves out of their tins for a few extra minutes. Always cool the bread on wire racks or the condensed steam will make the loaves heavy.

WHOLEMEAL BREAD RECIPE:
1½lb (750g) of wholemeal flour
generous teaspoon salt
pinch of brown sugar
about 3/4 pint (400ml) warm water
2 teaspoons fresh yeast (or dried yeast of your choice)

Dissolve the fresh yeast in about half a tea cupful of the warm water, add a pinch only of sugar and allow it to become frothy. Mix the warmed flour with the salt in a warmed bowl, make a well in the centre and pour in the frothy yeast and the remainder of the water. Gradually stir all together with a knife to make a scone-like dough and then knead until the texture becomes smooth and elastic. A little more flour may be necessary if the dough is sticky. You need not follow bread recipes slavishly so far as precise weights are concerned. The type of wheat milled, the freshness of the flour and the weather conditions will all cause variations. Follow the previous directions for rising, shaping and baking the dough. The quantities given will make one small loaf (about 1lb of risen dough) plus about eight dinner rolls.

Variations upon a theme: Many ingredients may be introduced to add variety to your bread. Kibbled wheat (crushed, rather than ground, grains) gives a rough, nutty texture if included as part of the flour. The broken grains will soften if soaked overnight in some of the water to be used in the bread.. Add a teaspoon of malt extract to give a passable imitation of Granary flour. Soya flour, made from soya beans, is high in protein and makes a nutritious addition to your bread. 'Jumbo' rolled grain flakes can be used in the same way as kibbled wheat; try oats, barley or rye. Children will enjoy making Breakfast Cereal bread by adding crushed Weetabix, Shredded Wheat, cornflakes and any other cereals to the flour.

Problems with your bread? The protein 'gluten' is the dough's 'skeleton'; the strength of the bread dough depends upon the gluten's elasticity which enables the dough to rise. High protein 'strong' flours make the best bread. The gluten may be softened by being too warm, by using too much yeast or by the addition of fats, sugar or malt to the recipe, so you may need to allow the dough longer to rise. The bran and wheatgerm enzymes in wholemeal flour may also retard the rising. You can strengthen the gluten by adding sufficient salt to assist the fermenting action, by using an acidic liquid to make the dough (by adding a little plain yoghurt, buttermilk, tomato juice, lemon juice or ascorbic acid - vitamin C) and by quick and vigorous kneading and a thorough knocking back after the first rise. If you are using a low protein flour replace some of that in the recipe with some semolina. Above all do not rush the rise.

Troubleshooting:
Bread is 'close' with a heavy crumb? - yeast insufficient or not active, the dough was too dry, the rise and proof too short or too hot an oven at the start, setting the crust hard
Big holes in the loaf? - these are produced in the first rising: be sure to knock back the dough before shaping and proving.
Bread dries out quickly? - rising time too short, dough mixed too 'tight' (dry), flour low in gluten or rise and proof too warm
Bread crumb sticky? - dough too 'slack' (wet), dough over proved, too short a baking time

© Nottingham City Council